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7-A Questions
STUDENT RESOURCE 7-A
This video describes a number of events, conditions and attitudes that contributed to starvation, suffering, illness and deaths of millions of people in Germany and territories of her former allies as well as in Russia during the later months of the war - and months after the cease fire. These conditions and deaths were largely the direct result of the continued naval blockade against these nations. It describes a sample of the events, attitudes and ideas that shaped the final peace treaty between the warring nations. Germany's negative reaction to the terms of the peace treaty are also revealed.
These questions will help focus your attention during the video. The answers will generate thoughts and feelings that are critical to comprehending this era and what the people thought, felt and did.
1. What is the definition of "hunger?" What specific evidence is there that severe levels of hunger existed after the war in Germany, Austria and Russia.
2. What would be three reasons why many people in Europe after the war expected positive changes in the political relationships and power in their countries?
3. What are at least three reasons why so many people after the war did not think they or the rest of the world could to back to the way it had been before the war?
4. What would have motivated the Bolsheviks during 1918 to treat Nicholas and the Royal Family in the way they were treated?
5. What were the most important reasons why Tsar Nicholas II and his family were assassinated at the moment and in the place where they were?
6. What did the death of the Tsar and his family symbolize or the Russian people and their efforts to establish a new government for themselves?
7. What are at least three reasons why soldiers in the French, British and Americans armies landed in Russia in 1919 and fought the Bolsheviks?
8. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated his throne and left Germany in November 1918. What is an accurate description of the political, social and economic conditions in the Germany that he left behind?
9. What are the major characteristics of the DADA Movement? What were the major reasons why this Movement emerged in Europe during this war?
10. What were the initial reactions of the people of Europe to President Woodrow Wilson and his ideas? In what ways were their later reactions to him and his ideas similar and different from their original reactions?
11. For what reasons might Historian Jay Winter have claimed that the peace conference was like a "grand bazaar"?
12. What factors might have caused the Allies to continue their blockade of their war enemies and Russia beyond the November 11 cease fire?
13. What words would accurately describe the political, social and economic situation in Russia during their Civil War?
14. What were the major reasons why Germany did not like and would not accept the terms of the peace treaty?
STUDENT RESOURCE 7-B
Context and Overview of the Great War: HATRED AND HUNGER
The most momentous event of 1918 was the cease-fire that began on November 11th. The celebrations lasted for days in some cities around the world. For many the war was over and all the hostilities and the reasons for these hostilities were things of the past. However, for others, especially the leaders of France, Italy and Britain, the fighting was over but the reasons and emotions behind their fighting was far from being things of the past. They were present things as well. Except for President Wilson of the United States, the victors entered the negotiations with hatred and revenge on their minds, and made sure these were carried out it the final terms.
In the months that followed the armistice, people in the defeated nations continued to starve, to die and to suffer because the Allies would not lift their naval blockade to allow food and supplies to get to them. The hatred and desire for revenge and punishment continued against the civilian populations of the defeated nations. There was no mercy shown by the British and French governments for these civilians - and very little effort was made by the civilians in France or Britain to change their governments' policies. Total war does not end abruptly. The intense emotions that drive a nation to destroy its enemies do not disappear with the stroke of a pen on a cease fire or peace treaty agreement.
In the end, the Treaty of Versailles did little to resolve the issues that would have brought a just, lasting and real peace to Europe and the rest of the world. The Germans were humiliated into accepting blame for the war, and grew in their resentment towards the victors. One good thing occurred with the signatures on the treaty, the navy blockade ended. As best they could, the victors as well as the defeated after June 28, 1919 could now officially go about the task of living in a new world that was decidedly separate in many areas from the world that had existed just five years earlier.
Meanwhile, during the year 1919, the Civil War in Russia continued and with it more than 8 million deaths and an unknown number of civilian and military casualties. The British and French hated and feared the Bolsheviks, and sent soldiers to fight the Bolsheviks. American soldiers landed on Russian soil with the British and French soldiers. They departed after a short time, but not before both sides suffered casualties.
This war, like most wars before it, was lost not on the battlefields but at the peace conference.
The world could not return to the way it was - to what was "normal." Four empires had disappeared, a new menace labeled "Bolshevism" arose, and millions of people tasted the ideas and feelings associated with nationalism, national self-determination and democracy. The peace that followed the war was not one that was likely to last for a long period. The efforts to adjust to the war and what people experienced during and after the Great War would dominate decisions in every area for the rest of the century. And, for millions the war continued.
QUESTIONS
1. What two emotions strongly influenced the decisions and actions of the Allies after the cease fire?
2. What would have lead the Allies to continue the naval blockade against the defeated nations after the cease fire?
3. Is it ever possible to end a war merely by stopping the fighting on the battlefield?
4. To what extent were the Allies justified in punishing the civilian population of their former enemies through the use of the naval blockade?
5. Suppose you were a civilian in Germany and had to cope with the effects of this blockade after the cease fire. What feelings would you have toward the Allies?
6. What are the reasons why one could claim that the war did not end with the cease fire and the peace treaty?
The Paris Peace Conference:
If asked what he wanted, he might have said "The French people want revenge for what Germany did to them in 1871 and continued to do in Alsace and Lorraine until the armistice. On behalf of the French people, I want the world to recognize Germany as the sole cause of this war and all its destruction, death and suffering. Furthermore I will not rest until the Germans publicly declare the war was their fault and their fault alone. I want Germany to pay for all the damages that were done to our property and land during the entire war. This payment will help us financially. We also want national security and freedom from any possible future invasion from the Germans. Therefore we demand that Germany be weakened so that she will never again become a major military force in Europe. Therefore, Germany must be stripped of her army and navy. I want the former French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine returned to France. Germany must be stripped of her overseas colonies and all lands gained via conquests on the Eastern Front and through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia. These acts will decrease Germany's population and access to raw materials for her economy and military. To help France rebuild her economy and help protect our borders, I want France to be given the Rhine valley area of Germany without having to pay the Germans for it. If this is not possible, then the Rhine Valley must be a buffer zone occupied by a neutral power. The world must realize that the German personality is such that they only will dictated terms because to them compromise, conciliation and negotiation are admissions of weakness of personal and national character which they find intolerable."
Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America
If asked what he wanted, he might have said "We fought his war against the leaders of the governments of the defeated nations, not against the people. I did not come here to punish Germany or any of our enemies in this war. I did not come here to save or rebuild France or England. I came here to redeem the world and make it a fit place for free men like ourselves to live in. My primary aim is to ensure peace without victory. We need to do what is right and thereby create a lasting peace. We should reduce if not eliminate the colonial system of the European nations. We must provide for the self-determination of all people to participate fully and democratically in a government of their choosing. My Fourteen Points offer the best chance of bringing and ensuring the just and lasting peace
we all desire. We must not punish Germany just for the sake of punishment. Let us be conciliatory rather than be revengeful."
Lloyd George, British Prime Minister
If asked what he wanted, he might have said "Making Germany pay a huge sum for the damage done during the war will be hard to collect. Furthermore, the Germans would not willingly pay a huge sum in full. She has a strong economic base that was not damaged much by the war effort. If we can get an admission of guilt and responsibility on the part of the Germans, that is okay. If we can get Germany to pay for some of the damage that is great. Britain wants to make sure that (a) the German Navy is never again able to challenge
Britain on the seas, (b) the colonies of Germany are taken away from her, and (c) Germany's army will not be large enough to bring about a future war on the mainland of Europe. We cannot accept a provision that guarantees absolute freedom of the seas during a war in which are a part. Besides, this guarantee would take away the power of a naval blockade.
Furthermore I do not want to weaken Germany so much that France becomes the dominant and sole military power in Europe. Because we fear the Bolsheviks who now control Russia, a weak Germany might lead to a Russian invasion of all the nations of Western Europe, leaving France and Britain to fight Russia. Besides all this, I have an election to win back home."
Vittorio Orlando, Italian Prime Minister
If asked what he wanted, he might have said "I want Italy to be rewarded for our participation in this war, to receive recognition for her having contributed to the Allied victory on the battlefield, and to be able to expand her territories, especially in the region of the Aegean Sea. Most importantly I want Italy to be accepted as being a major power among the nations of Europe."
German leaders and people
If asked what they wanted, they might have said "We originally wanted a cease fire and to negotiate a peace agreement afterwards. With the assurances from President Wilson that the treaty would closely follow the provisions of the Fourteen Points and would not give either side an immediate advantage over the other, we willingly agreed to the armistice to end this war. Remember, our armies were not defeated on the battlefield. We accept the losses and break-up of our ally, Austria-Hungary. Kaiser Wilhelm II was forced by our people to give up his crown. We have already given up our territorial gains in the East. We resent having to negotiate under duress as the Allies are still blockading our borders. Our people are starving in their homes and in the streets of every town and city in Germany. Thousands did not survive the winter and spring and many thousands more are near death. We should not be expected to pay any nation for damages due to the war. We should not have to give up any of our overseas colonies or be forced to give France or any nation part of our coal reserves in the Rhine Valley. We are not to blame for starting this war and should not be required to accept full and sole blame for all the destruction, suffering and deaths. We acted because of the threat of an invasion by the Russians who mobilized before we did."
Different Hopes and Expectations
1. What were the major desires of each of these leaders?
2. In what areas were the Allied leaders in agreement?
3. In what areas did the Allied leaders differ?
4. At the peace conference, which two leaders had the most overlap in their desires and expectations?
5. At the peace conference, which two leaders had the greatest difference between their desires and expectations?
6. Suppose you were the representative of Germany and you had read these comments about the four leaders of the Allies. Given this information, what terms would you expect to be included in the peace treaty?
7. Given the above information, what assessment would the Germans like have about the attitudes of the Allies towards Germany?
A Confession of Guilt Would be a Lie
The information below are excerpts from two speeches made by one of the officials of the German government during the negotiations for a peace treaty in the Spring and Summer, 1919. Study it carefully to comprehend the view that many Germans held at this time and for decades after the Great War.
We are deeply impressed with the sublime task which has brought us together to give a durable peace to the world. We are under no illusion as to the extent of our defeat... We know the power of German arms is broken. We know the strength of the hatred which we encounter here, and we have heard the passionate demand that the victors should force us to pay as vanquished, and at the same time should punish us as guilty.
It is demanded of us that we shall confess ourselves to be alone guilty of the war. Such a confession from my lips would be a lie. We are far from declining all responsibility for the fact that this great World War took place,... we energetically deny that Germany and its people, who were convinced that they fought a war of defense, were alone guilty.
No one would ... assert that the disaster began only at that disastrous moment when the successor of Austria-Hungary fell a victim to murderous hands. In the last fifty years, the imperialism of all European states has chronically poisoned international relations. Policies of retaliation, policies of expansion, and disregard for the rights of peoples to determine their own destiny have contributed to the European malady which came to a crisis in the World War. The mobilization o Russia deprived statesmen of the opportunity of curing the disease, and placed the issue in the hands of the military powers.
... even in the manner of conducting the war, Germany is not the only guilty one. Every European nation knows of deeds and of people whom their own countrymen remember only with regret... when we are asked for reparation, the armistice must not be forgotten. It was six weeks before we obtained it; it was six months before we knew your terms of peace. Crimes in war may not be excusable, but they are committed in struggle for victory, and in defense of national existence, and under the influence of passions which deadens the conscience of peoples. The hundreds of thousands of non-combatants who have perished since the 11th of November by reason of the blockade, were killed with cold deliberation after our adversaries had conquered and victory had been assured them. Think of that when you speak of guilt and of punishment.
The measure of guilt of all participants can be fixed only by an impartial inquiry...We have demanded such an inquiry..."
Mr. President
In the draft of a peace treaty submitted to the German Delegates, Part VIII, concerning reparation, begins with Article 231, which reads as follows:
The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.
The German people did not will the war and would never have undertaken a war of aggression. They have always remained convinced that this war was for them a defensive war.
Nor do the German delegates share the views of the Allied and Associated Governments in regard to the origin of the war. They are unable to consider the former German Government as the party solely or chiefly responsible for this war. The draft treaty of peace... contains no facts in support of this view...
1. What are five of the most important ideas that Count Brockdorff-Rantzau makes in these statements?
2. From his comments, what is Germany's position regarding who should be held responsible for starting the Great War?
3. From his comments, what is Germany's position as to the amount of responsibility Germany should bear for starting the war?
4. If you were the leader of one of the Allied nations, what impact would these statements have on your decision concerning who should be blamed for starting the war?
5. Suppose you were a German civilian and had read this statement. To what extent would you agree with the Count's ideas?
6. Which of the ideas in this statements would you support as being probably true and accurate? Which ones would you reject as probably being incorrect or untrue?
7. Given these statements, if you were the leader of Britain, would you continue the naval blockade against the Germans?
People Are Dying Like Flies
It is my deliberate opinion that as a doctor that unless food is sent to Vienna immediately, at least 200,000 people out of a total of 2,500,000 will die as soon as the cold weather sets in. Vienna is not on the verge of starvation, but actually starving, and people are dying like flies...I have never witnessed such sights as these ...Food had begun to be sent in by the Allies; but not enough, and since the blockade is still maintained, and as Austria could purchase neither food nor raw materials for herself, the state of the population became terrible. Cabbages and turnips be-came the main staples. The milk ration, even for infants. Was about a teacup. The mortality was appalling, and there was no wood left for coffins. Boxes served as coffins for the children (thirty or forty were dying per day in one institution); but grown-up bodies had to be buried in mass graves, the bodies one over the other, with a layer of earth and lime in between. Under blockade conditions, too, no linen could be spared for graveclothes. The dead were wrapped in paper and carried out of town by night.
Report from Orenburg, Russia:
"Conditions...are almost beyond description. Poverty, malnutrition, and starvation are evident everywhere; the dead seen lying on the streets of the city and on the roads leading into town soon become prey to dogs and birds...[In] one of the worst institutions,...starving, sick, and dying are crowded together upon the floors, fifty to one hundred in a room. There are no toilet facilities and no bathing accommodations except for a cold spigot in the court. The government ration consists of a quarter pound of bread and some hot water daily. The dead-we saw as many as three in a single room lying with the living-are carried out and piled naked together to be transported later to the cemetery where great pits...are dug.
[Furthermore] cannibalism reported and authenticated. Bodies too numerous to bury and which had died of typhus and other diseases were piled in heaps in buildings, were stolen, and the flesh boiled for food. The punishment meted to offenders was to imprison them until they died of starvation....Lawlessness, robberies, and murders are extremely common and it is not safe to venture out upon the streets at night..."
These quotes excerpted from Joseph Carter (1968). 1918: Year of Crisis, Year of Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Pages 29-33. [No exact reference to the original sources are included in this book.]
1. What do these statements say about the living conditions of the people in Germany, Austria and Russia after the cease-fire?
2. To what extent were the Allies justified in causing these conditions in the first place?
3. To what extent were the Allies justified in continuing conditions such as these after the cease-fire?
4. What are your reasons for claiming the Allies were justified in continuing the blockade and these effects?
5. In what ways did the hatred of the Allies affect a generation of civilians who were not even born when the Great War was being fought?
6. Is this level of starvation and desperation among civilians ever justified?
7. Suppose you were President Wilson in January 1919, what would you have done to stop the starvation, suffering and dying among the civilian populations of the defeated nations?
STUDENT RESOURCE 7-F
Managing Without the Kaiser
The abdication of Wilhelm II, the refusal to accept his son as the next monarch and to accept any monarchy, and the need to establish a republican form of government created major problems for the Germans after November 9, 1918. On top of this, the Germans were forced to deal with the results of the naval blockade, her surrender to the Allies and finalizing the treaty that would end the war.
The new government, the Weimar Republic, was under the leadership of the Social Democratic Party. This party before the war was the largest, strongest and most active pro-worker group in the world. Unfortunately, its leaders expected the old world order to return with the same relationships among worker and owners as before. They expected to continue to represent the workers against the owners and a government that was pro-business. Instead they found a party that had merged with the owners during the war and that a workers' revolution in Germany in 1919 made no sense. So rather than start a revolution to bring in the world order of Socialism, the leaders of the party suppressed the rioters, protesters and rebels who sought to restore the monarch or bring about a Socialist or Communist revolution.
The new government, led by Friedrich Ebert, established some immediate policies and promised a democratic form of government as soon as that could be arranged. The Communists attacked a number of major buildings in Berlin, the capital city, and elsewhere. The forces loyal to the new government counterattacked with ruthless and immediate vengeance. The main leaders of the Communists were killed without trial. Everywhere Communists were rounded up and killed, especially those who participated openly in riots, demonstrations, and take-over attempts. One government solder wrote: "No pardon [of the Communists} is given. We shoot even the wounded. The enthusiasm is great, almost unbelievable."
The general democratic election was held on January 19, 1919. The new constitution was adopted on July 31 of the same year. One obstacle to making the new government work was getting a wide variety of groups who had very different notions of how to run and rebuild the nation. At the same time this government had to end the war by means of the treaty-making process. Probably the most important obstacle was that the people were used to a strong monarchy, an elite, a strong military that could secure Germany's borders and defend her against all enemies, and the memories of the glory and prestige of pre-War Germany rather than the alien ideas of a democracy, republic and equality. The republic was perceived by many as being directly responsible for undermining the military in the last weeks of the war, for the Kaiser's abdication and the end of the traditional ways Germany had been governed, and for Germany losing the war. Given these perceptions, for what reasons would one want to be loyal to such a government. To accept the Treaty of Versailles would have doomed the republic and those officials who led the new government. In the end, the democracies that won the war excluded Germany from participating democratically in the treaty-making process and in the League of Nations that followed.
1. What is the definition of a "republic?" For what reasons would the people of a nation want a republic as its form of government?
2. What are the strengths of a republic form of government? What are its weaknesses?
3. What is the form of government that exists in the United States?
4. What are the reasons why it would be difficult to form a republic form of government in a nation that had just overthrown its monarch?
5. Given that the Germans tried to form this government at the end of a very costly war, what additional problems did the Germans have in setting up this government?
6. What were the reasons why representatives of the new German government did not want to sign the Treaty of Versailles?
7. Given the above information, was Hitler correct when he said that the Germans lost the Great War because she was "stabbed in the back?" If he was correct, then what person or group did the "stabbing?"
STUDENT RESOURCE 7-G
Noteworthy Quotes: HATRED AND HUNGER
"We did not go to war for ideals, we joined the Allies in order to get control of the Adriatic [Sea]!"
"It is easier to make war than to make peace."
"This is not peace. It is an armistice for twenty years."
Marshal Ferdinand Foch, June 28, 1919
"We live on hopes, expectations, and promises."
"I am not afraid of death, but I am so afraid of what they will do to us here."
"In view of the fact that your relatives are continuing their attack on Soviet Russia, the... Executive Committee has decided to execute you."
"Clemenceau, Lloyd George and President Wilson have pulled up armchairs and crouch low over the map.... It is appalling that these ignorant and irresponsible men should be cutting Asia Minor to bits as if they were dividing a cake.... During the afternoon there is the final revision of the frontiers of Austria... . Hungary is partitioned - indolently, irresponsibly partitioned.... Then the Yugoslav Frontier. Then tea and macaroons."
Gentlemen:
Excerpts from an address of Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, May 7, 1919
President, German Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference
Excerpts from an address of Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, May 13, 1919
(Both of the above are from German White Book Concerning the Responsibility of the Authors of the War, Translated by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1924). New York: Oxford University Press)
Report from Vienna:
Italy's Vittorio Orlando, 1919*
Italy's leader at the peace conference
Georges Clemenceau
French Prime Minister at the Peace Conference
French Commander of the Allied Armies
during the Great War
Anna Eisenmenger, Spring, 1919*
A widow in post-war Austria
Heir to the Throne, Alexei Romanov, 1918*
Comment to his mother during imprisonment of Royal Family in Siberia
Iakov Iurovsky, July 1918*
Report of executioner of Tsar Nicholas II
and the royal household
Harold Nicolson, Spring, 1919*
British Diplomat at the Paris Peace Conference.